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| Inner City Deprivation and Regeneration |
Above: The Cycle of Deprivation.
Notes:
Decentralisation is the process whereby people and businesses move out of the inner city regions
(especially the CBD) to the edges of suburbs or to the urban/rural fringe.
De-industrialisation is the decline of factories and businesses, which are unable to adapt to the new
demands of the modern world. Many small local shops cease to trade, whilst some national chain stores
survive. De-industrialisation is most pronounced in central city regions.
This cycle is explained in detail in the next section below.
Reasons for Inner City and CBD decline
The inner city is the region immediately surrounding the CBD and is often dilapidated with poor housing
and economic hardship and social unrest. It includes at least part of the transition zone. This is distinct
from the CBD, however, when we talk of ‘inner city regions’ or ‘central city areas’ we generally refer loosely
to both the CBD and inner city – both of which suffer decline.
Suburbanisation and counter-urbanisation involves mostly the wealthier people moving away from the
inner city. Industry and commerce also locates in the suburbs, causing the inner city to decline. Some of
the reasons for the movements of businesses away from the central areas are as follows:
1. Businesses gain a competitive edge if they create a good working environment to attract skilled
professionals (for example science parks) or to attract customers (e.g. attractive shopping centres) – this
requires plenty of space which is simply not available in the cramped central city regions where land is also
expensive. Good environments have less pollution and landscaped surroundings.
2. Such greenfield sites allow space for future expansion and have easy access to good transport routes
via ring-roads and motorways (and so become viable with increased car ownership).
3. Decline in agriculture due to more intensive farming, increased imports and BSE and foot and mouth
disease causing farms to close has made cheap greenfield sites available.
4. Planning policies have encouraged people to disperse from overcrowded central regions by the
construction of New Towns and the redevelopment of inner city land for other purposes (such as tourism
and leisure). Industry follows these New Town markets and is pushed out of the city centre by
redevelopment. Originally there were few planning restrictions on these greenfield sites (this is no longer
the case as green belts need to be conserved).
5. The cheaper land away from central regions allows the construction of large car parks – important in the
age of the motor car. In inner city regions people find it hard to commute through heavy traffic along
congested roads and then find it hard to park, which is a disadvantage to any business.
6. With the development of ring roads and motor ways and the increase in car ownership, city centres are
no longer the only focus of transport routes and suburbs may now actually be more accessible (originally
rail way lines, tram lines and main A roads all converged on the city centre giving it the greatest
accessibility). For example, over one million people a day commute to and from work to London through
heavy traffic congestion – a clear incentive for businesses to locate elsewhere.
7. Originally industries tended to cluster together for mutual benefit, e.g. the Jewellery Quarter in
Birmingham, but with improved transport and increased car ownership and improved electronic
communications, modern industries are more foot-loose. Indeed, many people now buy online via the
Internet, in which case so long as the industry has access to main roads it matters little where it is located.
8. As some industries moved out, the tax burden was increased on those that remained, making inner city
regions less profitable.
Residents have also moved out of inner city regions, indeed movement of the residents generally
proceeded that of industry, but followed industrial decline. Some of the reasons for residents leaving inner
city regions are as follows:
1. Heavy industries, such as steel working and ship-building declined in Britain, leaving many industrial
areas along dockyards and canals and sources of water (especially important for the aluminium industry)
vacant and derelict, unemployment and social tension ensued.
2. Ethnic immigrants added to the social tension by creating racial tension and ethnic immigrants were
often blamed for unemployment (by stealing jobs) and many British cities saw race riots, e.g. the Toxteth
Riots (Liverpool, 1981), the Handsworth Riots (Birmingham, 1985) and the Brixton Riots (London, 1981
and 1985).
3. Unemployment and social tensions caused an increase in local crime.
4. Increasing affluence and mobility made it possible for many people to buy larger more modern homes in
the suburbs and countryside.
5. Anti-urbanism and anti-materialism have encouraged people to move out into the suburbs and villages
in search of an idyllic country life with fresh air and beautiful scenery.
6. As wealthier people moved out, landlords made less profit and so invested less in housing which
deteriorated.
Of course in practise, all these factors are inter-linked: as business moves out so a region deteriorates as
unemployment rises and as people move out, so does business. What we have is a vicious circle,
sometimes modelled as the cycle of deprivation shown above. In the next section we look at what has been
done to redevelop and regenerate inner city areas.
Gentrification, Beautification and Regeneration of the CBD and Inner City
This state of inner city decline is certainly not desirable – social inequity becomes more apparent as the
poorer people are delegated to deteriorating housing and areas of rising crime whilst the wealthier escape
to the fresh air suburbs and peripheral villages. Local councils and landlords have sought to reverse this
trend and revitalise the decaying inner urban areas and entice the middle classes back into the inner cities
– a process known as gentrification. Although, the term ‘gentrification’ strictly refers to a shift upwards from
lower to middle class residential housing, the term embodies the whole redevelopment package – the
middle classes expect good shopping and leisure facilities and do not want to commute through a
congested inner city to work in the suburbs. Industry, apart from providing local jobs for the gentry, is also
a source of investment – the two are planned to go together, industry draws investment which draws
people which draws investment.
Gentrification and redevelopment of inner city areas began in the 1960s, during an upturn in the economy.
The policy was a Comprehensive Development Areas programme (CDA) or ‘knock it all down and start
again’. New housing initiatives consisted of high rise housing blocks. For example, the Hulme Crescents in
Manchester comprised arcs of high rise residential blocks interspersed with green fields and a scattering
of trees. This site looked beautiful from the air and won an architectural award. Flats were well provisioned
with bathrooms, hot and cold running water, central heating and kitchens. However, the scheme was
ultimately a failure. Unemployment was high in the region – what is the use of building blocks of flats if the
residents have nowhere to work. Many could not afford to use their electric heaters. The blocks were
poorly constructed and damp was a problem and the reinforced concrete rapidly decayed. Access was
often via long and dingy alley-ways where undesirables and street litter collected. Lifts were poorly
maintained and many less mobile residents who could not cope with the stairs became prisoners in their
own homes. Noise from neighbours was also a serious problem. The community spirit diminished and
stress and poverty induced health problems increased. In the 1980s many flats like these were demolished
or under refurbishment, but an economic slump in the 1970s and 1980s hindered redevelopment. Indeed,
many areas cleared at the start of the CDA had not been developed and land became derelict.
Beginning in the 1990s and continuing to the present day, inner city areas have seen a new wave of
gentrification and redevelopment. Learning from past mistakes, this time residential development was to go
hand in hand with economic development. Beautification would sell the cities to investors and raise the
morale of residents. This is best illustrated by example.
Case Study: Redevelopment of the CBD and inner city of Birmingham
Large British cities first saw a wave of gentrification and inner city redevelopment during the economic up-
turn of the 1950s and 60s. This period was followed by economic depression in the 1970s and 1980s and
the turn of the new millennium has seen a new wave of gentrification and redevelopment that continues to
this day. Birmingham is one of the best examples of this redevelopment as the whole city centre has been
transformed over the past 10 years. The early strong features of the city centre have been retained or
modified and extensive new construction has taken place.
Birmingham is situated in the heart of the West Midlands and was at the heart of the Industrial Revolution
in Britain. As heavy industry declined in the first half of the twentieth century, Birmingham switched to
engineering and lighter manufacturing, producing cycles, aircraft, munitions and other metal goods and
became the centre of British manufacturing and motor car manufacture became of prime importance.
However, the recession of the 1970s and 1980s saw Birmingham fall victim to its own success – it was
simply too specialised to rapidly adapt to the rapidly changing economy and its economic base became
irreversibly damaged and had to be rebuilt. Race riots were indicative of this decline and Birmingham
became a city in crisis. Birmingham had to rebuild its image in order to attract modern industries.
One of the first iconic buildings to capture the attention of visitors to Birmingham city centre is the striking
cylindrical white tower, called the Rotunda. This was built in 1964 as an office block. In 1974 a public
house was added to the ground floor (this was the site of one of the Birmingham pub bombings) a bank
strong-room in the basement helps support the tower’s weight. In 2004 the Rotunda was refurbished and
230 luxury apartments were added. The original plan also included a rotating restaurant on the top floor,
but this has yet to materialise. The building was meant to look like a candle and was originally intended to
have a flame-like beacon on top which changed colour to reflect the weather, but this was omitted to
reduce costs. This illustrates one of the problems of the first wave of redevelopment in the 60s – corners
were cut to save money partly as people did not appreciate the positive economic impact that iconic
buildings can have on cities. Instead, all non-essential features that did not bring in revenue from letting
office space were cut. Today’s redevelopers have learnt their lessons and come to realise that an icon
boosts the economy even if it does not directly generate revenue. Icons make cities look more attractive
and prosperous and serve to attract tourists and investors. They also help create a positive attitude
among a city’s citizens – a vital ingredient to economic success that cannot be precisely measured.
Notes:
Decentralisation is the process whereby people and businesses move out of the inner city regions
(especially the CBD) to the edges of suburbs or to the urban/rural fringe.
De-industrialisation is the decline of factories and businesses, which are unable to adapt to the new
demands of the modern world. Many small local shops cease to trade, whilst some national chain stores
survive. De-industrialisation is most pronounced in central city regions.
This cycle is explained in detail in the next section below.
Reasons for Inner City and CBD decline
The inner city is the region immediately surrounding the CBD and is often dilapidated with poor housing
and economic hardship and social unrest. It includes at least part of the transition zone. This is distinct
from the CBD, however, when we talk of ‘inner city regions’ or ‘central city areas’ we generally refer loosely
to both the CBD and inner city – both of which suffer decline.
Suburbanisation and counter-urbanisation involves mostly the wealthier people moving away from the
inner city. Industry and commerce also locates in the suburbs, causing the inner city to decline. Some of
the reasons for the movements of businesses away from the central areas are as follows:
1. Businesses gain a competitive edge if they create a good working environment to attract skilled
professionals (for example science parks) or to attract customers (e.g. attractive shopping centres) – this
requires plenty of space which is simply not available in the cramped central city regions where land is also
expensive. Good environments have less pollution and landscaped surroundings.
2. Such greenfield sites allow space for future expansion and have easy access to good transport routes
via ring-roads and motorways (and so become viable with increased car ownership).
3. Decline in agriculture due to more intensive farming, increased imports and BSE and foot and mouth
disease causing farms to close has made cheap greenfield sites available.
4. Planning policies have encouraged people to disperse from overcrowded central regions by the
construction of New Towns and the redevelopment of inner city land for other purposes (such as tourism
and leisure). Industry follows these New Town markets and is pushed out of the city centre by
redevelopment. Originally there were few planning restrictions on these greenfield sites (this is no longer
the case as green belts need to be conserved).
5. The cheaper land away from central regions allows the construction of large car parks – important in the
age of the motor car. In inner city regions people find it hard to commute through heavy traffic along
congested roads and then find it hard to park, which is a disadvantage to any business.
6. With the development of ring roads and motor ways and the increase in car ownership, city centres are
no longer the only focus of transport routes and suburbs may now actually be more accessible (originally
rail way lines, tram lines and main A roads all converged on the city centre giving it the greatest
accessibility). For example, over one million people a day commute to and from work to London through
heavy traffic congestion – a clear incentive for businesses to locate elsewhere.
7. Originally industries tended to cluster together for mutual benefit, e.g. the Jewellery Quarter in
Birmingham, but with improved transport and increased car ownership and improved electronic
communications, modern industries are more foot-loose. Indeed, many people now buy online via the
Internet, in which case so long as the industry has access to main roads it matters little where it is located.
8. As some industries moved out, the tax burden was increased on those that remained, making inner city
regions less profitable.
Residents have also moved out of inner city regions, indeed movement of the residents generally
proceeded that of industry, but followed industrial decline. Some of the reasons for residents leaving inner
city regions are as follows:
1. Heavy industries, such as steel working and ship-building declined in Britain, leaving many industrial
areas along dockyards and canals and sources of water (especially important for the aluminium industry)
vacant and derelict, unemployment and social tension ensued.
2. Ethnic immigrants added to the social tension by creating racial tension and ethnic immigrants were
often blamed for unemployment (by stealing jobs) and many British cities saw race riots, e.g. the Toxteth
Riots (Liverpool, 1981), the Handsworth Riots (Birmingham, 1985) and the Brixton Riots (London, 1981
and 1985).
3. Unemployment and social tensions caused an increase in local crime.
4. Increasing affluence and mobility made it possible for many people to buy larger more modern homes in
the suburbs and countryside.
5. Anti-urbanism and anti-materialism have encouraged people to move out into the suburbs and villages
in search of an idyllic country life with fresh air and beautiful scenery.
6. As wealthier people moved out, landlords made less profit and so invested less in housing which
deteriorated.
Of course in practise, all these factors are inter-linked: as business moves out so a region deteriorates as
unemployment rises and as people move out, so does business. What we have is a vicious circle,
sometimes modelled as the cycle of deprivation shown above. In the next section we look at what has been
done to redevelop and regenerate inner city areas.
Gentrification, Beautification and Regeneration of the CBD and Inner City
This state of inner city decline is certainly not desirable – social inequity becomes more apparent as the
poorer people are delegated to deteriorating housing and areas of rising crime whilst the wealthier escape
to the fresh air suburbs and peripheral villages. Local councils and landlords have sought to reverse this
trend and revitalise the decaying inner urban areas and entice the middle classes back into the inner cities
– a process known as gentrification. Although, the term ‘gentrification’ strictly refers to a shift upwards from
lower to middle class residential housing, the term embodies the whole redevelopment package – the
middle classes expect good shopping and leisure facilities and do not want to commute through a
congested inner city to work in the suburbs. Industry, apart from providing local jobs for the gentry, is also
a source of investment – the two are planned to go together, industry draws investment which draws
people which draws investment.
Gentrification and redevelopment of inner city areas began in the 1960s, during an upturn in the economy.
The policy was a Comprehensive Development Areas programme (CDA) or ‘knock it all down and start
again’. New housing initiatives consisted of high rise housing blocks. For example, the Hulme Crescents in
Manchester comprised arcs of high rise residential blocks interspersed with green fields and a scattering
of trees. This site looked beautiful from the air and won an architectural award. Flats were well provisioned
with bathrooms, hot and cold running water, central heating and kitchens. However, the scheme was
ultimately a failure. Unemployment was high in the region – what is the use of building blocks of flats if the
residents have nowhere to work. Many could not afford to use their electric heaters. The blocks were
poorly constructed and damp was a problem and the reinforced concrete rapidly decayed. Access was
often via long and dingy alley-ways where undesirables and street litter collected. Lifts were poorly
maintained and many less mobile residents who could not cope with the stairs became prisoners in their
own homes. Noise from neighbours was also a serious problem. The community spirit diminished and
stress and poverty induced health problems increased. In the 1980s many flats like these were demolished
or under refurbishment, but an economic slump in the 1970s and 1980s hindered redevelopment. Indeed,
many areas cleared at the start of the CDA had not been developed and land became derelict.
Beginning in the 1990s and continuing to the present day, inner city areas have seen a new wave of
gentrification and redevelopment. Learning from past mistakes, this time residential development was to go
hand in hand with economic development. Beautification would sell the cities to investors and raise the
morale of residents. This is best illustrated by example.
Case Study: Redevelopment of the CBD and inner city of Birmingham
Large British cities first saw a wave of gentrification and inner city redevelopment during the economic up-
turn of the 1950s and 60s. This period was followed by economic depression in the 1970s and 1980s and
the turn of the new millennium has seen a new wave of gentrification and redevelopment that continues to
this day. Birmingham is one of the best examples of this redevelopment as the whole city centre has been
transformed over the past 10 years. The early strong features of the city centre have been retained or
modified and extensive new construction has taken place.
Birmingham is situated in the heart of the West Midlands and was at the heart of the Industrial Revolution
in Britain. As heavy industry declined in the first half of the twentieth century, Birmingham switched to
engineering and lighter manufacturing, producing cycles, aircraft, munitions and other metal goods and
became the centre of British manufacturing and motor car manufacture became of prime importance.
However, the recession of the 1970s and 1980s saw Birmingham fall victim to its own success – it was
simply too specialised to rapidly adapt to the rapidly changing economy and its economic base became
irreversibly damaged and had to be rebuilt. Race riots were indicative of this decline and Birmingham
became a city in crisis. Birmingham had to rebuild its image in order to attract modern industries.
One of the first iconic buildings to capture the attention of visitors to Birmingham city centre is the striking
cylindrical white tower, called the Rotunda. This was built in 1964 as an office block. In 1974 a public
house was added to the ground floor (this was the site of one of the Birmingham pub bombings) a bank
strong-room in the basement helps support the tower’s weight. In 2004 the Rotunda was refurbished and
230 luxury apartments were added. The original plan also included a rotating restaurant on the top floor,
but this has yet to materialise. The building was meant to look like a candle and was originally intended to
have a flame-like beacon on top which changed colour to reflect the weather, but this was omitted to
reduce costs. This illustrates one of the problems of the first wave of redevelopment in the 60s – corners
were cut to save money partly as people did not appreciate the positive economic impact that iconic
buildings can have on cities. Instead, all non-essential features that did not bring in revenue from letting
office space were cut. Today’s redevelopers have learnt their lessons and come to realise that an icon
boosts the economy even if it does not directly generate revenue. Icons make cities look more attractive
and prosperous and serve to attract tourists and investors. They also help create a positive attitude
among a city’s citizens – a vital ingredient to economic success that cannot be precisely measured.
The sketch map above shows some of the key areas of Birmingham's CBD and inner city which have seen
recent regeneration. These areas will be discussed in turn.
The bull ring shopping area was an ancient market for local retailers that was developed into a shopping
complex in the 1960s redevelopment scheme, but like so many 1960s developments the emphasis was on
functionality and before long the construction looked drab and deteriorated and so was redeveloped around
the year 2000 with the Selfridges department store opening in 2003 and taking the place of the principle market
area. The Selfridges store is an iconic building of truly fantastic design, making it utterly unique and futuristic
looking. It is accompanied by an easy access pedestrian area that makes it easy for shoppers arriving at New
Street train station to walk there. It stands next to a completely contrasting ancient iconic building – the St
Martin’s Church and the two create a beautiful contrast that in no way clashes.
recent regeneration. These areas will be discussed in turn.
The bull ring shopping area was an ancient market for local retailers that was developed into a shopping
complex in the 1960s redevelopment scheme, but like so many 1960s developments the emphasis was on
functionality and before long the construction looked drab and deteriorated and so was redeveloped around
the year 2000 with the Selfridges department store opening in 2003 and taking the place of the principle market
area. The Selfridges store is an iconic building of truly fantastic design, making it utterly unique and futuristic
looking. It is accompanied by an easy access pedestrian area that makes it easy for shoppers arriving at New
Street train station to walk there. It stands next to a completely contrasting ancient iconic building – the St
Martin’s Church and the two create a beautiful contrast that in no way clashes.
Above: The Rotunda candle-like tower (R), built in 1964 and the nearby Selfridges department
store (S), opened in 2003, in the Bull Ring centre and the ancient St Martin's church (M) which
was mostly rebuilt in the 19th century, but parts of which date back to the 13th century. This
church really has all the grandeur of a cathedral and is often called 'the cathedral of the Bull
Ring'. (Image taken from Google Earth according to copyright permissions). Click image to
enlarge.
store (S), opened in 2003, in the Bull Ring centre and the ancient St Martin's church (M) which
was mostly rebuilt in the 19th century, but parts of which date back to the 13th century. This
church really has all the grandeur of a cathedral and is often called 'the cathedral of the Bull
Ring'. (Image taken from Google Earth according to copyright permissions). Click image to
enlarge.
Successes of and Problems with Birmingham’s Inner City Redevelopment
There can be no doubt that the past twenty years have seen Birmingham drastically enhance its image as an
entrepreneurial city, so the scheme has been a sales success. However, the Broad Street redevelopment
scheme had only created half as many jobs as expected as of 1995 with many of the companies failing to
recruit and train local people as agreed. This did not halt the scheme, however, as it brought in the needed
investment to the area and so the scheme is on-going, along with other regions of Birmingham that are being
redeveloped. It is noteworthy that the new inner city apartments are not cheap! They are essential charging
middle-class rates (despite the fact that there residents are by definition working-class since they do not own
their own properties).
This is the main criticism of gentrification – rather than uplifting the local residents with an area, it tends to
displace the poorer residents with gentry from elsewhere. It also shows where housing is going in Britain – it is
so hard to get on the property ladder that young professionals continue to rent at a level equivalent to having a
mortgage, in part because of the need for a deposit and the lack of suitable housing, and in part because they
postpone having children and live bachelor lifestyles well into their 30s or beyond. In short, these inner city
luxury apartments are primarily suited for single childless people. Is this the lot of the working class – to earn a
high income only to lose it all to a landlord? Not exactly, those working in finance can certainly save well whilst
renting what is for them a cheap luxury apartment, but teachers and academics and nurses and other such
professionals are hard-pushed. (Indeed, Birmingham is following the London route – properties in London are
simply beyond the reach of teachers and nurses and many academics and research scientists).
In tune with this importation of the expensive London lifestyle are the expensive designer shops and the
delicatessant store at the base of Selfridges was virtually empty of customers when I visited, and no surprise, it
cost twenty GBP for a tiny slice of beef wrapped in pastry! Furthermore, rice and the such was sold per 100g,
which put me off (how many grams make a normal serving of rice!) and so I walked out empty-handed. Indeed,
gone is the chance of a hearty and cheap fish and chips in Birmingham city centre, it seems, with even the
lightest snack costing a fortune! Thus, who is really benefiting from gentrification? Big business and the gentry
benefit most, whilst all citizens gain a more visually attractive city with better leisure facilities, the poorer citizens
lose out as the cost of this entertainment, the luxury apartments and the designer goods may be beyond their
reach. Ideally gentrification does not completely replace low-cost housing, but boosts an area whilst providing
mixed housing (both expensive and low-cost housing). In practise gentrification seems to be creating a city
primarily for middle-class white-collar workers.
Others criticise the tendency toward high-rise buildings – they claim that these ‘monstrous constructions’ serve
the ego of local politicians who want to boast how much greater their city is than anybody else’s. Certainly, high-
rise towers are icons of a city’s prosperity, but so far those that have been built and are proposed in the near
future in Birmingham are works of art (whether to the individual’s taste or not) and not merely concrete blocks.
Personally I don’t want to see Birmingham city centre become an American city centre with high-rise office
blocks springing from every nook and cranny and blocking out the Sun – a few will do just fine.
A Better Solution?
People are not so easily deceived. Redevelopment sometimes generates initial excitement, but it is increasingly
opposed by the public, often from the outset. Why? Because people do not always benefit in clear ways. re-
development can create jobs, such as for those who work in the new Selfridges department store in
Birmingham, though it can also jeopardise pre-existing jobs, such as those traders who used to trade in the old
Bull Ring. Even so, these jobs often do not create desired working conditions - not everyone wants to work long
hours serving customers in a shop. People who do not gain employment may also see little or no benefit. All
too often 're-development' is really about providing the needs of large corporations, increasingly multinational
and Global businesses and people are increasingly cynical as to the real motive behind such schemes as a
small percentage of people, often non-locals, benefit much more than the rest. Such schemes can also make a
city unfriendly to people. Consider a typical avenue in Los Angeles - lined by 'nameless' and faceless office
blocks, towering to the sky. Often such an environment is not good for the human psyche and is not considered
healthy for children. It seems as though people are being squeezed out of inner cities. At night these centres
can be deserted. In Birmingham, there was some success in making the centre more attractive to shoppers and
the re-developed regions are part of a busy commerce and recreation centre. This is more desirable, not only
does it make people want to be in the city, but pedestrian shoppers throng, facilitated by an increase in cafes,
restaurants and coffee shops, often with outdoors seating - something the French discovered can really bring a
city to life and create a more relaxed atmosphere. 'Gentrification' should not be about displacing the poorer
people and creating a haven for the more wealthy, rather it should aim to raise the standards and qualities of
life for all citizens.
I feel, however, from my own experience, that much more ought to be done to create vibrant cities. Cities need
recreational spaces and green spaces. In a city with a very large homeless population, like Los Angeles, these
parks may become used more by the homeless, at least at night, and this creates separate issues and a new
conflict of interest between the haves and have-nots. A city like London is, however, famous for its parks and
these must add considerably to the attractiveness of the city. Too many cities lack recreational, sporting and
play areas. This discourages wealthier families from these areas, leaving the poorer and less mobile families
with a reduced quality of life. In the end, the whole of society pays for this inequity, not only from the occasional
riot, but also from the wastage of human talent. Cities need to be well-kept and they need a full-suite of
facilities, not just office blocks. The modern commuter cities in which the wealthy work in the inner city and then
sleep in the cosy suburbs is hardly full-efficient and does pollution little good. It also wastes time and money.
Politicians may sell development projects to big business by declaring the benefits to families of workers
immigrating to the area, or stating how making a city attractive attracts investors, and there is some truth in this.
However, in the end people should come first, otherwise cities will never be nice places in which to live and
work. A happy populace is a productive one, more so in a modern technological economy where perhaps
economic growth depends on creativity, genius and innovation, as much as it does on simple hard labour. It is
also always better for a society to have everyone on-board, rather than just the wealthiest 1%. Should cities
really be made to be seen as 'boring places'?
There can be no doubt that the past twenty years have seen Birmingham drastically enhance its image as an
entrepreneurial city, so the scheme has been a sales success. However, the Broad Street redevelopment
scheme had only created half as many jobs as expected as of 1995 with many of the companies failing to
recruit and train local people as agreed. This did not halt the scheme, however, as it brought in the needed
investment to the area and so the scheme is on-going, along with other regions of Birmingham that are being
redeveloped. It is noteworthy that the new inner city apartments are not cheap! They are essential charging
middle-class rates (despite the fact that there residents are by definition working-class since they do not own
their own properties).
This is the main criticism of gentrification – rather than uplifting the local residents with an area, it tends to
displace the poorer residents with gentry from elsewhere. It also shows where housing is going in Britain – it is
so hard to get on the property ladder that young professionals continue to rent at a level equivalent to having a
mortgage, in part because of the need for a deposit and the lack of suitable housing, and in part because they
postpone having children and live bachelor lifestyles well into their 30s or beyond. In short, these inner city
luxury apartments are primarily suited for single childless people. Is this the lot of the working class – to earn a
high income only to lose it all to a landlord? Not exactly, those working in finance can certainly save well whilst
renting what is for them a cheap luxury apartment, but teachers and academics and nurses and other such
professionals are hard-pushed. (Indeed, Birmingham is following the London route – properties in London are
simply beyond the reach of teachers and nurses and many academics and research scientists).
In tune with this importation of the expensive London lifestyle are the expensive designer shops and the
delicatessant store at the base of Selfridges was virtually empty of customers when I visited, and no surprise, it
cost twenty GBP for a tiny slice of beef wrapped in pastry! Furthermore, rice and the such was sold per 100g,
which put me off (how many grams make a normal serving of rice!) and so I walked out empty-handed. Indeed,
gone is the chance of a hearty and cheap fish and chips in Birmingham city centre, it seems, with even the
lightest snack costing a fortune! Thus, who is really benefiting from gentrification? Big business and the gentry
benefit most, whilst all citizens gain a more visually attractive city with better leisure facilities, the poorer citizens
lose out as the cost of this entertainment, the luxury apartments and the designer goods may be beyond their
reach. Ideally gentrification does not completely replace low-cost housing, but boosts an area whilst providing
mixed housing (both expensive and low-cost housing). In practise gentrification seems to be creating a city
primarily for middle-class white-collar workers.
Others criticise the tendency toward high-rise buildings – they claim that these ‘monstrous constructions’ serve
the ego of local politicians who want to boast how much greater their city is than anybody else’s. Certainly, high-
rise towers are icons of a city’s prosperity, but so far those that have been built and are proposed in the near
future in Birmingham are works of art (whether to the individual’s taste or not) and not merely concrete blocks.
Personally I don’t want to see Birmingham city centre become an American city centre with high-rise office
blocks springing from every nook and cranny and blocking out the Sun – a few will do just fine.
A Better Solution?
People are not so easily deceived. Redevelopment sometimes generates initial excitement, but it is increasingly
opposed by the public, often from the outset. Why? Because people do not always benefit in clear ways. re-
development can create jobs, such as for those who work in the new Selfridges department store in
Birmingham, though it can also jeopardise pre-existing jobs, such as those traders who used to trade in the old
Bull Ring. Even so, these jobs often do not create desired working conditions - not everyone wants to work long
hours serving customers in a shop. People who do not gain employment may also see little or no benefit. All
too often 're-development' is really about providing the needs of large corporations, increasingly multinational
and Global businesses and people are increasingly cynical as to the real motive behind such schemes as a
small percentage of people, often non-locals, benefit much more than the rest. Such schemes can also make a
city unfriendly to people. Consider a typical avenue in Los Angeles - lined by 'nameless' and faceless office
blocks, towering to the sky. Often such an environment is not good for the human psyche and is not considered
healthy for children. It seems as though people are being squeezed out of inner cities. At night these centres
can be deserted. In Birmingham, there was some success in making the centre more attractive to shoppers and
the re-developed regions are part of a busy commerce and recreation centre. This is more desirable, not only
does it make people want to be in the city, but pedestrian shoppers throng, facilitated by an increase in cafes,
restaurants and coffee shops, often with outdoors seating - something the French discovered can really bring a
city to life and create a more relaxed atmosphere. 'Gentrification' should not be about displacing the poorer
people and creating a haven for the more wealthy, rather it should aim to raise the standards and qualities of
life for all citizens.
I feel, however, from my own experience, that much more ought to be done to create vibrant cities. Cities need
recreational spaces and green spaces. In a city with a very large homeless population, like Los Angeles, these
parks may become used more by the homeless, at least at night, and this creates separate issues and a new
conflict of interest between the haves and have-nots. A city like London is, however, famous for its parks and
these must add considerably to the attractiveness of the city. Too many cities lack recreational, sporting and
play areas. This discourages wealthier families from these areas, leaving the poorer and less mobile families
with a reduced quality of life. In the end, the whole of society pays for this inequity, not only from the occasional
riot, but also from the wastage of human talent. Cities need to be well-kept and they need a full-suite of
facilities, not just office blocks. The modern commuter cities in which the wealthy work in the inner city and then
sleep in the cosy suburbs is hardly full-efficient and does pollution little good. It also wastes time and money.
Politicians may sell development projects to big business by declaring the benefits to families of workers
immigrating to the area, or stating how making a city attractive attracts investors, and there is some truth in this.
However, in the end people should come first, otherwise cities will never be nice places in which to live and
work. A happy populace is a productive one, more so in a modern technological economy where perhaps
economic growth depends on creativity, genius and innovation, as much as it does on simple hard labour. It is
also always better for a society to have everyone on-board, rather than just the wealthiest 1%. Should cities
really be made to be seen as 'boring places'?
Some Iconic Buildings in Birmingham:
We have already seen the importance of iconic buildings to a city's image and for attracting investment and
custom.
Present:
The BT Tower (Post Office Tower or GPO Tower): 152 metres tall – the tallest structure in Birmingham.
The Rotunda: built in 1964 as an office block and later refurbished with some change in function.
The Alpha Tower: originally offices for ATV television company, now office space for various companies
(including Birmingham City Council, Birmingham Arts Marketing and the Criminal Cases Review Commission).
The Beetham Tower (Holloway Circus Tower, 10 Holloway Circus): 121.5 metres tall and currently the second
tallest building in Birmingham after the BT Tower. The lower 19 floors are a hotel and the upper 20 are luxury
residences.
Selfridges department store: located in the Bull Ring - a futuristic looking building coated in 15 000 aluminium
discs and opened in 2003.
In the Near Future:
The V Building: planned to be 147 metres tall and a luxury residential block, to be sited next to the Alpha Tower.
The Pinnacle Tower: planned for completion in 2008 in Eastside, next to Millennium Point, about 0.8 kilometres
NE of the Bull Ring, and planned to be 574 feet tall and will include a vertical theme park and a restaurant
(possibly the highest in Europe).
The Broad Street Tower: planned to be 134 metres tall with a hotel and apartments, located in Broad Street.
The Snow Hill Tower: planned to be 138 metres tall and primarily residential.
We have already seen the importance of iconic buildings to a city's image and for attracting investment and
custom.
Present:
The BT Tower (Post Office Tower or GPO Tower): 152 metres tall – the tallest structure in Birmingham.
The Rotunda: built in 1964 as an office block and later refurbished with some change in function.
The Alpha Tower: originally offices for ATV television company, now office space for various companies
(including Birmingham City Council, Birmingham Arts Marketing and the Criminal Cases Review Commission).
The Beetham Tower (Holloway Circus Tower, 10 Holloway Circus): 121.5 metres tall and currently the second
tallest building in Birmingham after the BT Tower. The lower 19 floors are a hotel and the upper 20 are luxury
residences.
Selfridges department store: located in the Bull Ring - a futuristic looking building coated in 15 000 aluminium
discs and opened in 2003.
In the Near Future:
The V Building: planned to be 147 metres tall and a luxury residential block, to be sited next to the Alpha Tower.
The Pinnacle Tower: planned for completion in 2008 in Eastside, next to Millennium Point, about 0.8 kilometres
NE of the Bull Ring, and planned to be 574 feet tall and will include a vertical theme park and a restaurant
(possibly the highest in Europe).
The Broad Street Tower: planned to be 134 metres tall with a hotel and apartments, located in Broad Street.
The Snow Hill Tower: planned to be 138 metres tall and primarily residential.
The Broad Street area has been continually developed over the recent decades. It suffered decline in part due
to the decline of heavy industry and in part because it was cut off from the city centre by the Queensway ring
road (which has since been altered). Its principle feature, centenary square, continues to be a focus with
buildings like the Symphony Hall and International Convention Centre and the Repertory Theatre surrounding it
and the iconic Hall of Memory (in honour of war dead) within it. It was also the site of the Birmingham Wheel and
the early Paris Wheel (both temporary fixtures). Centenary Square also contains several other artistic icons,
such as the Spirit and Enterprise artistic fountain and it once contained the controversial ‘Forward!’ (Lurpak)
sculpture, with its communist socialist labour feel and which was unveiled in 1991 and destroyed by arson in
2003.
The Town Hall was constructed beginning 1832 and was modelled on the Temple of Castor and Pollux in Rome.
It was constructed from bricks (made in nearby Selly Oak) and marble and limestone (some of which
incorporate visible fossils) and was refurbished in 1996.
Just south-west of Centenary Square the old canal wharf has been redeveloped in recent years. Once an
industrial centre which decayed with the decline of heavy industry in Britain, it now supports major leisure
attractions, including the Sea Life Centre in Brindley Place and a number of restaurants and public houses and
boat trips. The Broad Street redevelopment area covers a 40 acre site and includes the National indoor Arena
(NIA) and the International Convention centre (ICC). Even though the ICC (which opened in the early 1990s)
was predicted to work at a net financial loss, it was intended to bring in trade to nearby hotels (such as the
Hyatt Regency Hotel in Centenary Square) and is itself an icon intended to attract investment and provide
services to the citizens.
The Mailbox is a unit comprising offices, designer shops, restaurants, bars and luxury apartments, a mini
supermarket, a hotel, a spa and two art galleries and backs onto the scenic Worcester and Birmingham canal.
A public forum the size of Chamberlain Square has been built in front of the building. The site also houses the
new BBC Birmingham recording studios (which moved from pebble Mill in Edgbaston). The complex is open and
fully functional but is still under development with the Cube shortly to be constructed, which will contain a hotel,
a roof-top restaurant and residential apartments. The wharf area features a number of luxury apartments
served by the local restaurants, bars and a gymnasium on Suffolk Street Queensway.
to the decline of heavy industry and in part because it was cut off from the city centre by the Queensway ring
road (which has since been altered). Its principle feature, centenary square, continues to be a focus with
buildings like the Symphony Hall and International Convention Centre and the Repertory Theatre surrounding it
and the iconic Hall of Memory (in honour of war dead) within it. It was also the site of the Birmingham Wheel and
the early Paris Wheel (both temporary fixtures). Centenary Square also contains several other artistic icons,
such as the Spirit and Enterprise artistic fountain and it once contained the controversial ‘Forward!’ (Lurpak)
sculpture, with its communist socialist labour feel and which was unveiled in 1991 and destroyed by arson in
2003.
The Town Hall was constructed beginning 1832 and was modelled on the Temple of Castor and Pollux in Rome.
It was constructed from bricks (made in nearby Selly Oak) and marble and limestone (some of which
incorporate visible fossils) and was refurbished in 1996.
Just south-west of Centenary Square the old canal wharf has been redeveloped in recent years. Once an
industrial centre which decayed with the decline of heavy industry in Britain, it now supports major leisure
attractions, including the Sea Life Centre in Brindley Place and a number of restaurants and public houses and
boat trips. The Broad Street redevelopment area covers a 40 acre site and includes the National indoor Arena
(NIA) and the International Convention centre (ICC). Even though the ICC (which opened in the early 1990s)
was predicted to work at a net financial loss, it was intended to bring in trade to nearby hotels (such as the
Hyatt Regency Hotel in Centenary Square) and is itself an icon intended to attract investment and provide
services to the citizens.
The Mailbox is a unit comprising offices, designer shops, restaurants, bars and luxury apartments, a mini
supermarket, a hotel, a spa and two art galleries and backs onto the scenic Worcester and Birmingham canal.
A public forum the size of Chamberlain Square has been built in front of the building. The site also houses the
new BBC Birmingham recording studios (which moved from pebble Mill in Edgbaston). The complex is open and
fully functional but is still under development with the Cube shortly to be constructed, which will contain a hotel,
a roof-top restaurant and residential apartments. The wharf area features a number of luxury apartments
served by the local restaurants, bars and a gymnasium on Suffolk Street Queensway.
Above: a closer view of Selfridges, showing the pedestrian shopping area of the Bull Ring
outside. The aluminium discs that coat the outside of the building are just visible here.
outside. The aluminium discs that coat the outside of the building are just visible here.
Above: a closer look at Selfridges (picture taken from the public domain c/o
G-Man (Wikipedia). The exterior is coated with 15 000 aluminium discs.
G-Man (Wikipedia). The exterior is coated with 15 000 aluminium discs.
Above: Centenary Square (CS), with the Hall of Memory (M) at its NE end, just before the bridge
across the Paradise Circus road which joins to the Paradise Forum (PF). The Alpha Tower (A) is
also visible at the bottom and just South of this is the site of construction of the V Building (V). RT
is the Repertory Theatre. Click on image to enlarge.
across the Paradise Circus road which joins to the Paradise Forum (PF). The Alpha Tower (A) is
also visible at the bottom and just South of this is the site of construction of the V Building (V). RT
is the Repertory Theatre. Click on image to enlarge.
Above: further to the NE the Plaza Forum (PF) opens into Chamberlain Square (ChS) by the Central
Library (Lib) and containing the Museum and Art Gallery (Mus). Chamberlain square connects to
Victoria Square (VS). Centenary Square, Chamberlain Square and Victoria Square, form an attractive
pedestrian area that connect to pedestrian shopping areas in the CBD - thus a pedestrian area extends
from the Broad street transition zone all the way to the main shopping centres in the CBD. This
increases custom and use of the facilities as more people pass through the area at a slower pace and
are better able to look around, whereas drive through areas tend to receive less custom. Also, people
prefer to shop in more relaxed and scenic pedestrian areas. TH is the Town Hall. Click on image to
enlarge.
Library (Lib) and containing the Museum and Art Gallery (Mus). Chamberlain square connects to
Victoria Square (VS). Centenary Square, Chamberlain Square and Victoria Square, form an attractive
pedestrian area that connect to pedestrian shopping areas in the CBD - thus a pedestrian area extends
from the Broad street transition zone all the way to the main shopping centres in the CBD. This
increases custom and use of the facilities as more people pass through the area at a slower pace and
are better able to look around, whereas drive through areas tend to receive less custom. Also, people
prefer to shop in more relaxed and scenic pedestrian areas. TH is the Town Hall. Click on image to
enlarge.
Above: the regenerated wharf - SLC is the Sealife Centre in Brindley Place and NIA is the National
Indoor Arena. Notice the scenic canal-side residential units (Res). CT is the Crescent Theatre and M is
a multistorey car park. It is easy to walk from here to Broad Street and hence to the main city shopping
centre.
Indoor Arena. Notice the scenic canal-side residential units (Res). CT is the Crescent Theatre and M is
a multistorey car park. It is easy to walk from here to Broad Street and hence to the main city shopping
centre.
Above: The BT Tower, Birmingham's tallest structure at 152 metres.
